Applying Neuroscience to Exercise Programming

It’s common knowledge that exercise can benefit the brain in a multitude of ways—and the evidence in neuroscience supporting this idea continues to increase (Bamidis et al. 2014). Even so, many people have a view that is “mechanistically narrow or biased.” In other words, they focus on only a couple of mechanisms, such as blood flow or neurotransmitters, when something more like a complex orchestra of neurobiology is involved.

In fact, there is mounting neuroscience research showing that different modalities of exercise can provide unique benefits to the brain at various levels, from cellular to global and functional to behavioral. Ready to open your mind to the wider array of brain benefits? This article summarizes the neuroscience, shares helpful specifics and offers guidance for applying the findings to exercise programming.

Three Levels of Brain Benefits

According to Stillman et al. (2016), the effects of exercise on the brain occur at multiple levels. These levels are the micro level, the macro level and the behavioral level.

The micro level in the brain is associated with the smaller components and physiology (e.g., neurons and synapses) that make up the macro level (i.e., regional and global levels). The behavioral level refers to observable changes (e.g., in mood or cognition) expressed as the result of the changes at the micro level and the macro level (Stimpson, Davison & Javadi 2018). If the jargon is making your head spin a little, read the refresher information on brain anatomy and functions in “Memory Jogger: Parts of the Brain” and “Memory Jogger: Mental Functions,” below , before delving deeper.

Micro-Level Benefits

Using exercise physiology as a metaphor, the micro-level changes in the brain include changes at the cellular and network levels, which are akin to changes in the neuromuscular system at the motor-unit level. Micro-level changes include changes that support brain structure and function, such as blood flow and neurotransmitter activity in the brain, which is also a shared characteristic with the neuromuscular system. Specific micro-level benefits can be seen in the following areas:

Growth factors. Increases in proteins, hormones and molecules that either exist in the brain or enter via the blood-brain barrier can lead to various improvements in brain structure and brain function. Exercise improves neurotrophic factors (related to nervous tissue growth) including nerve growth factor, insulin-like growth factor 1, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and vascular endothelial growth factor. These growth factors play key roles in neuron creation, growth, survival and proliferation, as well as supportive functions (e.g., VEGF aids in the development of new blood vessels in the brain). 

Blood flow. The increased cardiorespiratory demands of exercise, even at lower-intensity levels, can increase blood flow into and within the brain, delivering oxygen and nutrients more effectively and efficiently throughout.

Neurotransmitters. Neurochemicals, such as dopamine, acetylcholine and cortisol, increase during exercise, which can then lead to behavioral-level changes such as acute states of alertness and positive mood. Over the long term, certain neurotransmitter receptors can become more efficient in anticipation of the neurochemical responses to exercise.

Brain waves. As exercise is an excitatory activity, it encourages the expression of brain waves that are of faster speeds, particularly during the exercise session. Over time, exercise can lead to more efficient brain activity, even in nonexercise states (such as during sleep).

These micro-level changes in blood flow, neurotransmitters, hormone activity and brain waves often give way to larger-level functional changes at the macro level.

Macro-Level Benefits

At the macro level, regions and networks of the brain are like individual muscles and muscle groups, or kinetic chains. Exercise can cause macro-level changes to brain structure and brain function in the brain’s regions (e.g., temporal and frontal lobes), subregions (e.g., hippocampus and prefrontal cortex) and networks (e.g., central executive network and default mode network), as well as the brain as a whole (e.g., white- and gray-matter volume) (Baniqued et al. 2018; Burdette et al. 2010). Here are the primary changes at the macro level:

Brain function. Earlier exercise-related brain changes are more likely to be reflected as functional changes to certain regions, subregions or networks of the brain (Voss et al. 2010). Exercise can make the brain more efficient at utilizing energy to accomplish certain tasks. It can also improve brain function in ways that lead to beneficial behavioral-level changes in mood and cognition.

Brain structure. In addition to neuronal changes, exercise can benefit entire brain regions and the brain overall. This can include increases in the integrity of white matter (which helps transmit signals) and increases in volume of gray matter (which processes information) as well as gray matter preservation (e.g., slowing atrophy related to aging or a disease).

Behavioral-Level Benefits

Behavioral-level benefits are more easily noticeable by exercise participants and observers than are macro- or micro-level benefits. They are also more easily assessed—through questionnaires, surveys, discussions and observation. (See “Micro- and Macro-Level Assessments,” below, for how those are measured.) Behavioral-level benefits to the brain involve both cognitive and mood-related changes.

Cognition. Exercise can improve certain aspects of cognition, both acutely and chronically, depending upon the type of exercise intervention used and the population studied. This can include improvements in attention and executive functions (which help coordinate various brain functions), among others.

Mood, stress and mental health. Exercise research and neuroscience have documented increases in positive mood states, decreases in negative mood states, reductions in stress, and improvements in stress resilience. Clinically meaningful improvements in symptoms of depression, anxiety and other mental illnesses also have been recorded. Other positive effects that support mental health include increased energy, better sleep, and improved confidence and self-esteem (Mandolesi et al. 2018).

See also: Boosting the Brain Health of Older Adults

Unique Benefits of Specific Exercise Modalities

While the benefits discussed above are common to most types of exercise, neuroscience research shows that different modalities of exercise may provide unique benefits to the brain. Here are some highlights.

Resistance Training

Resistance training seems to benefit the structure and function of the frontal lobe, specifically with regard to executive functions (Herold et al. 2019; Best et al. 2015). Some researchers have posited resistance training as a form of “cognitive training” because it requires a certain level of executive functions to perform—which may also be why resistance training has been found to create improvements in these complex mental processes (Liu-Ambrose et al. 2010).

Some studies have also found resistance training to benefit certain subfields (smaller regions) of the hippocampus (Broadhouse et al. 2020). And several studies have observed the positive correlation between exercise-related neuromuscular changes (i.e., increases in muscle mass, muscle strength and neuromuscular efficiency) and brain health, especially as it relates to aging and the prevention of frailty.

The contraction of skeletal muscle tissue during this modality has been found to release a growth factor called irisin (named after Iris, Greek mythology’s messenger to the gods, which in this case is the brain). Irisin crosses the blood-brain barrier and can improve brain function (Young, Valaris & Wrann 2019).

Aerobic Exercise

Aerobic exercise seems to improve white-matter integrity, as well as volume of global gray matter, the temporal lobe and the hippocampus (Voss et al. 2013; Colcombe et al. 2006; Bugg & Head 2011; Kleemeyer et al. 2016).

This modality has also been found to contribute to frontal lobe volumes, cognition and improvements in executive functions (Hayes, Alosco & Forman 2014; Hillman, Erickson & Kramer 2008). However, researchers debate the significance of these findings, and more research needs to be done (Chen et al. 2020; Diamond & Ling 2015).

Aerobic exercise has been shown to result in structural and functional improvements in tandem: As it increases blood flow, it also increases the mobilization of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. BDNF has also been thought to contribute to neurogenesis, specifically in the hippocampus (key to learning and memory), although more human research is needed (Van Praag 2008). Aerobic exercise also promotes angiogenesis, or the creation of new blood vessels. (See “Effects of Exercise on Angiogenesis,” below.)

The acute benefits of aerobic exercise include changes in neurotransmitter levels, cerebral blood flow, excitation of brain waves and the expression of growth factors such as BDNF for 60–120 minutes after ceasing exercise. Frontal lobe–dependent cognitive functions, including executive functions, show improvements for up to 2 hours after exercise, and reduced stress and improved mood can last for 12–24 hours postworkout (Basso & Suzuki 2017).

Neuromotor Exercise

Neuromotor exercises are exercises that include a wide variety of motor skills, including balance, coordination, agility and proprioceptive training. This includes many coordinated activities that involve skill learning, such as sports, dance and martial arts (Burzynska et al. 2017; Rehfeld et al. 2018; Jacini et al. 2009). It also includes mind-body exercises like yoga and Pilates.

Because skill-building challenges the brain, neuromotor exercise can improve cognition, the volume of the hippocampus (critical to learning and memory), and the volume and function of the basal ganglia (the area of the brain affected in Parkinson’s disease) (Becker, Kutz & Voelcker-Rehage 2016; Niemann et al. 2014). It may also benefit the cerebellum (involved in balance and coordination), as well as the parietal lobe (which processes sensory information), although more research is needed on how and how significantly (Di Paola, Caltagirone & Petrosini 2013).

Neuromotor exercises include open-skill exercises, which take place in a changing environment, and closed-skill exercises, which take place in a static environment.

Open-skill exercise. Because of their unpredictability, open-skill exercises challenge the brain more and may benefit certain cognitive functions more than closed-skill types (Gu et al. 2019). As skills are learned and mastered, they become more automated, which benefits cognition and neuroplasticity (the brain’s ability to adapt and change). This provides an opportunity to introduce more novelty, complexity and/or variability to further challenge the body and brain (Pi et al. 2019; Voelcker-Rehage, Godde & Staudinger 2011; Niemann, Godde & Voelcker-Rehage 2014; Raw et al. 2019).

Mind-body exercise (MBE). MBE differs from many other types of neuromotor exercise in that it is typically less metabolically intense. It focuses on, requires and develops coordination, breathing, balance and neuromuscular efficiency. Examples include yoga, Pilates, tai chi and qigong. These MBE modalities have been found to benefit certain aspects of cognition, mood and brain structure (Gothe et al. 2019; Tao et al. 2017; Tsang & Fung 2008; Zhang et al. 2018; Wayne et al. 2014).

Multimodal Programs

Multimodal programs, which combine more than one modality of exercise together (e.g., aerobic training and resistance training), are more likely to slow or prevent cognitive decline when compared with single-mode programs (Bae et al. 2019). In addition, novelty, complexity and variability typically can be more easily built into multimodal exercise programs when compared with single modality programs (Iuliano et al. 2015; Levin, Netz & Ziv 2017). These factors may help contribute to brain health, as discussed earlier, by increasing brain activity required to accomplish new and challenging skills.

To provide the best brain benefits, exercise programs should seek to incorporate a reasonable amount of novelty and cognitively demanding and open-skill exercise modalities, either as programmed activities or leisure-time activities.

See also: Exercise and Brain Health

Guidelines on Exercise Dosage From Neuroscience

It is difficult to conclude what the “minimum viable dose” of exercise may be for certain short- and long-term brain health benefits, whether they be structural, functional or behavioral (Cabral et al. 2019).

In a systematic review of neuroscience research on older adults (with and without mild cognitive impairment and dementia), significant improvements in executive functions and processing speed were found after 52 hours of exercise (over varying time periods), regardless of the modality or modalities (Gomes-Osman et al. 2018). Many neuroscience studies have found certain brain benefits derived from shorter exercise durations, frequencies and interventions, including ones below the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans, 2nd ed., which are explored more below (Chapman et al. 2013; Piercy et. al. 2018).

Resistance training. The Guidelines recommend resistance training 2–3 times per week for 30–60 minutes per session, with most major muscle groups targeted. Most resistance-training research focuses on using weights, bands and machines, so the brain benefits of body-weight training (BWT) are less clear. BWT interventions for brain health have been studied primarily in older, more frail populations (Chang et al. 2012). Further, many studies on resistance training do not reveal the metabolic demand of the interventions studied, so it’s unclear whether there is also an aerobic component to the improvements (Berryman et al. 2014).

Aerobic exercise. The Guidelines recommend 150–300 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity, or 75–150 minutes of vigorous intensity aerobic activity (or a combination thereof). Researchers have looked at a wide array of types of aerobic exercise interventions, so there are too many variables to provide a clear answer to how much is best. The good news: Brain benefits have been found for low, moderate and high intensities, for both continuous and interval training, and at durations of 5–90 minutes (Andrews et al. 2020; Jiménez-Maldonado et al. 2018). Keep in mind that many neuromotor exercises can also be aerobically demanding, which is helpful for achieving the minimum guidelines of 150–300 minutes per week.

Neuromotor exercise. The Guidelines promote 2–3 weekly sessions of neuromotor exercise, including balance and/or mind-body exercise. Because of their ability to challenge the brain, open-skill exercises are recommended to be a part of all programs (Seidler et al. 2010). Though research has primarily observed individual modalities of open-skill exercise (e.g., dance or sports), fitness professionals can incorporate open-skill exercises into any type of aerobic, resistance and/or mobility programs (Rehfeld et al. 2018; Tsai et al. 2017). The novelty, complexity and variability can be adjusted by making changes within the modality (e.g., with a new dance routine or a new tennis opponent) or by switching between modalities (e.g., participating in tennis and dance) (Moreau, Morrison & Conway 2015). These factors can be varied similarly in mind-body exercise by trying different types (e.g., yoga versus tai chi) and by exploring variations within a modality (e.g., hatha yoga versus ashtanga).

Motivation and Adherence

As with other exercise outcome goals, brain health in itself may not be enough to spark participants to act and adhere to programming. But you can use neuroscience and the brain to benefit here, too.

Enjoyment. Enjoyment is an important factor in motivation, in general, but it may also be important for specific brain health outcomes. Exercises that produce enjoyment (a psychological component of mood) are more likely to positively impact mood—whereas exercises that are not enjoyed are less likely to do so. It’s possible that enjoyable activities are also more likely to improve cognition, although more research is needed.

Progression. Help participants become aware of how exercise makes them feel cognitively and mood-wise in the shorter term, then use sound motivational strategies to slowly increase their duration, frequency and/or variability over time until they reach their individual goals. On average, this should be done over periods of 3–6 months, although this is highly individual, and more research is needed to determine the most effective exercise promotion strategies.

Individuality. As with any exercise program, the participant’s personal circumstances and preferences play a key role in motivation and adherence. These factors include individual likes and dislikes, experience, psychology, socioeconomics, accessibility, and environment (Mortimer et al. 2012). For example, clients who live with other family members may be limited in terms of timing and exercise space, and older adults with cognitive impairments may require assistance of a spouse or hired caregiver in carrying out their program.

Physician supervision. All exercise and physical activity program changes should include physician supervision and approval, and recommended referrals to allied healthcare professionals will help maintain long-term adherence while also achieving optimal brain health.

See also: Effects of Aging on the Neuromuscular System

Putting Neuroscience Research Into Practice for Exercise

Much of the neuroscience research on exercise and brain health cited in this article involved healthy adult participants and older adults (Vecchio et al. 2018; Etnier, Drollette & Stutsky 2019). As such, it may not be perfectly translatable to other populations. However, neuroscience research on special populations has shown that many of these exercise modalities (individually and in combination) lead to brain benefits. Some such populations studied include children, people with cognitive impairments and neurological conditions, and those in rehabilitation programs (Coetsee & Terblanche 2017; Chaddock, Voss & Kramer 2012; van Uffelen et al. 2008; Zhou et al. 2020). Therefore, it stands to reason that physical activity can benefit most people’s brains in multiple positive ways. Provided you cater to each client’s individual abilities and needs, which is part and parcel of being a multifaceted fitness professional, weaving brain-oriented movement into your programs seems to be a smart move across the board.